Read the book: «Английский язык для медиков: конспект лекций»
ВВОДНАЯ ЛЕКЦИЯ History of medicine
Medicine is among the most ancient of human occupations. It began as an art and gradually developed into a science over the centuries. There are 3 main stages in medicine development: Medicine of Ancient Civilizations, Medicine of Middle Ages and Modern Medicine.
Early man, like the animals, was subject to illness and death. At that time medical actions were mostly a part of ceremonial rituals. The medicine-man practiced magic to help people who were ill or had a wound. New civilizations, which developed from early tribes, began to study the human body, its anatomic composition. Magic still played an important part in treating but new practical methods were also developing. The early Indians, e. g., set fractures and practiced aromatherapy. The Chinese were pioneers of immunization and acupuncture. The contribution of the Greeks in medicine was enormous. An early leader in Greek medicine was Aesculapius. His daughters, Hygeia and Panacea gave rise to dynasties of healers (curative medicine) and hygienists (preventive medicine). The division in curative and preventive medicine is true today. The ethic principles of a physician were summarized by another Greek, Hippocrates. They are known as Hippocrates Oath.
The next stage of Medicine's development was the Middle Ages. A very important achievement of that time was the hospital. The first ones appeared in the 15-th century in Oriental countries and later in Europe. Another advance of the Middle Ages was the foundation of universities during 13-14-th centuries. Among other disciplines students could study medicine. During 18-th century new discoveries were made in chemistry, anatomy, biology, others sciences. The advances of that time were invention of the stethoscope (by Rene Laennec), vaccination for smallpox, discovery of anesthetics and development of immunology and scientific surgery.
The next century is rise of bacteriology. Important discoveries were made by Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch. The development of scientific bacteriology made possible advances in surgery: using antiseptics and control of wound infection.
Medicine in the 20-th century made enormous contribution in the basic medical sciences. These are discovery of blood groups and vitamins, invention of insulin and penicillin, practice of plastic surgery and transplantation.
New words
medicine – медицина
ancient – древний
human – человеческий
occupation – занятие
art – искусство
to develop – развивать
science – наука
century – век
civilization – цивилизация
Middle аges – Средние века
modern – современный
animal – животное
subject – предмет
illness – заболевание
death – смерть
contribution – вклад
discovery – открытие
blood – кровь
Артикли
Перед каждым нарицательным существительным должен стоять артикль. В английском языке существуют два вида артиклей: неопределенный (indefinite) «А», «AN» и определенный (definite) «THE». Если слово употребляется в первый раз, используется неопределенный артикль» «А», «AN». Во второй и последующие разы употребляется определенный артикль «THE». Артикль не употребляется, если перед существительным стоит притяжательное или указательное местоимение, другое существительное в притяжательном падеже, количественное числительное или отрицание «ио».
Вставьте артикль, где необходимо.
1. This is… book. It s my… book.
2. Is this your… pencil? No, it is not my pencil, it is my sister's pencil.
3. I have… sister. My… sister is… engineer. My sister's… husband is… doctor.
4. I have no. handbag.
5. Is this… watch?
– No, it isn't… watch, it's… pen.
6. This… pen is good, and that… pen is bad.
7. I can see pencil on your… table, but I can see pencil on, but I can see no… paper.
8. Give me… chair, please.
9. They have… dog and two… cats.
10. I have… spoon in my… plate, but I have no… soup in it.
Answer the questions.
1. When the history of medicine began?
2. How did it begin?
3. How many the main stages are there in the history of medicine?
4. What practices medicine-men?
5. What role did magic play at those times?
6. Who began to study medicine?
7. Who were the pioneers of immunization and acupuncture?
8. Who was the early leader in Greek medicine?
9. When appeared the first hospitals?
10. What Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch discovered?
Make the sentences of your own using the new words (10 sentences).
Find the definite and indefinite articles in the text.
Find one word, which is a little bit different in meaning from others (найдите одно слово, которое немного отличается от других по смыслу):
1) a) medicine; b) theatre; c) doctor;
2) a) patient; b) lamp; c) pain;
3) a) dance; b) science; c) studying;
4) a) mushroom; b) human; c) man;
5) a) century; b) age; c) honey.
ЛЕКЦИЯ № 1. Cell
The cell is a smallest independent unit in the body containing all the essential properties of life. types of human cells can be grown in test tubes after beeing taken from the body. Cells which are functionally organized are often grouped together and operate in concert as a tissue, such as muscle tissue or nervous tissue. Various tissues may be arranged together to form a unit called organ as the kidney, liver, heart or lungs. Organs often function in groups called organ systems. Thus the esophagus, stomach, раnсreаs, liver and intestines constitute the digestive system.
Cells are characterized Ьуг high degree of complexity and order in both structure and function. The cell contains a number.
Of structures called cell organelles. These are responsible for carrying out the specialized biochemical reactions characterizing each. The many chemical reactions taking place in a cell require the establishment of varied chemical microenvironment.
Carefully controlled transport mechanisms along with highly effective barriers – the cell membranes – ensure that chemicals are present in the proper region of the call in appropriate concentration.
The cell membranes of a mixture of protein and lipid form its surroundings.
Membranes are an essential component of almost all cells organel-les. The membrane allows only certain molecules to pass through it.
The most visible and essential organelle in a cell is the nucleus, containing genetic material and regulating the activities of the entire cell.
The area outside of the molecules is called the cytoplasm. Cytoplasm contains a variety of organelles that have different functions.
New words
cell – клетка
independent – независимый
unit – единица
body – тело
all – все
life – жизнь
human – человеческий
together – вместе
tissue – ткань
organ systems – системы органов
to function – функционировать
to contain – содержать
membranes – мембраны
protein – протеин
nucleus – ядро
cytoplasm – цитоплазм
different – различный
Спряжение глагола to be в Present Simple.
To be – быть, находиться, являться. После следующих местоимений он меняет свою форму.
Спряжение глагола to be в Present Simple Таблица 1
For example.
1. I am a pupil. I am not a pupil. Am I a pupil?
2. She is a girl. She is not a girl. Is she a girl?
3. You are a good friend. You are not a good friend. Are you a good friend?
Поставьте глагол to be в правильную форму, заполнив пропуски.
1. I… a pupil.
2. My father. not a teacher, he… a scientist.
3.. your sister a teacher?
4. Mary. a painter.
5.. they at home?
6. My father. a worker.
7. She. at work.
8.. you a doctor?
9. He… a pilot.
10. We… students.
11. They… carpenters.
12… they at home?
13. they… not at home.
14. He… at work.
15… your sister a typist?
16… your brother at school?
17… your sister in the cabinet?
18. My sister… at home.
19… this your cat?
20. She… an actress.
21. This… my bag.
22. He… professor.
23. Helen… a singer.
24… you an engineer?
25. He… Russian.
Переведите на английский язык, употребляя глагол to be в Present Simple.
1. Я ученик. Я в школе.
2. Мой брат художник. Он не инженер.
3. Моя сестра на работе. Она врач.
4. Он студент, а не учитель.
5. Вы студент? – Нет, я ученик.
6. Моя сестра дома. Она больна.
7. Мы не в школе. Мы дома.
8. Мой брат ученик. Он в школе.
9. Ваша мама дома? – Нет, она на работе.
10. Ваш двоюродный брат дома? – Нет, он в школе.
11. Твоя сестра здорова сейчас? – Да, она здорова.
12. Ваша сестра учительница? – Нет, она студентка.
13. Твой папа на работе? Нет, он на даче.
14. Твоя сестра машинистка? – Да. Она машинистка.
15. Мой дедушка не ученый, он геолог.
16. Моя мама не учительница. Она врач.
17. Чья это ручка? – Это моя ручка.
18. Чья это книга? – Это ваша книга.
19. Чей это стол? – Это стол моего брата.
20. Чья это сумка? – Это сумка моей мамы.
21. Чей это карандаш? – Это карандаш моей сестры.
22. Это твоя тетрадь? – Да, это моя тетрадь.
23. Это тетрадь твоего брата? – Нет, это моя.
24. Где ваш стол? – Он посередине комнаты.
25. Где твоя ручка? – Она в моем кармане.
26. Где твоя тетрадь? – Она на столе.
Answer the questions.
1. What is the cell consists of?
2. What is a membrane?
3. Is cell the smallest independent unit of the body?
4. What can be grown in test – tubes?
5. What can various tissues form, when they are together?
6. What are the organ system consist of?
7. What are cell characterized by?
8. What are cell organelles?
9. What ate membranes?
10. What is the cytoplasm?
Make the sentences of your own using the new words (10 sentences).
Find the verb to be in the text. Explain why it is used in such a way?
Find one word, which is a little bit different in meaning from others (найдите одно слово, которое немного отличается от других по смыслу):
1) a) cell; b) body; c) flower;
2) a) life; b) plate; c) people;
3) a) test-tube; b) microscope; c) pen;
4) a) curtain; b) body; c) tissue;
5) a) spoon; b) kidney; c) liver.
ЛЕКЦИЯ № 2. Tissue
A tissue is a group of cells working together to do a special job. A histologist is one who specializes in the study of tissues. The cells, of which the tissues are made, contain from 60 to 99% water. Gases, liquids and solids dissolve in the water. Chemical reactions that are necessary for proper body function are carried on much more readily in a water solution. The water solution and other materials in which the tissues are bathed is slightly salty. This substance is called tissue fluid. It must be mentioned that an insufficiency of tissues fluid is called dehydration and an abnormal accumulation of this fluid caused a condition called edema.
Tissue classification: The 4 main groups of tissues are:
1) epithelial tissue forms elands, covers surfaces and lines cavities;
2) connective tissue holds all parts of the body in Place. This can be fat, cartilage, bone or blood. Blood sometimes is considered a sort of tissue, since it contains cells and performs many of the functions of tissues. However; the blood has many other unique characteristics;
3) nerve tissue conducts nerve impulses all over the body;
4) the muscle tissue is designed for power-producing contractions. The surface of the body and of the tubes or passages leading to the exterior and the surface of the various cavities in the body are lined by cells which are closely approximated to each other; thus have a small amount of intercellular substance. This lining cellular layer is called epithelium. An epithelial layer may be one or many cells in thickness. When it is composed of a single layer, it is called a simple epithelium; when two or more cells in thickness, it is stratified. The nature and consistency of intercellular substance, the matrix, and the amount and arrangement of fibers furnish the basis for the subdivision of connective tissue into three main groups: connective tissue proper, cartilage and bone. In connective tissue the intercellular substance is soft; in cartilage it is firm, yet flexible and elastic; in bone it is rigid due to the deposition of calcium salt in the matrix. In multicellular organisms certain cells developed to a high degree the properties of irritability and conductivity. These cells form the nervous tissues.
The nervous system of higher animals is characterized by the multiplicity of cellular forms and intercellular connections and by the complexity of its functioning. This multiplicity and complexity is the chief feature that distinguishes the nervous tissues from other tissue which are essentially of uniform structure and function.
Muscle tissue is composed of elongated cells which have the power of contracting or reducing their length. This property of contraction is ultimately a molecular phenomenon and is due to the presence of protein molecules. The following three types of muscle tissue occur in the body.
Smooth muscle tissue is found in sheet or tubes forming the walls of many hollow or tubular organs, for example the bladder, the intes tines of blood vessels. The cells forming this tissue are long spin dles with a central oval nucleus. They are usually packed together with all little connective tissue between them.
Striated muscle tissue is composed of cylindrical fibres often of great at length in which separate cells cannot be distinguished. Many small nuclei are found in the fibres lie just under the surface. Cardiac muscle resembles striated muscle in its structure, but smooth one in its action.
New words
tissue – ткань
group – группа
to work – работать
to do – делать
special – особенный, специальный
job – работа
water – вода
gas – газ
liquid – жидкость
epithelial – эпителиальный
layer – слой
muscle – мышца
to occur – встречаться
body – тело
flexible – гибкий
elastic – эластичный
nucleus – ядро
smooth – гладкий
fibre – волокно
cardiac – сердечный
Неопределенный артикль a (an) может употребляться только с исчисляемыми существительными, стоящими в единственном числе. Перед неисчисляемыми существительными или существительными во множественном числе неопределенный артикль опускается. Определенный артикль the употребляется и с исчисляемыми, и с неисчисляемыми существительными как в единственном, так и во множественном числе.
E. g. This is a book. The book is interesting (исчисляемое в единственном числе).
This is – meat. The meat is fresh (неисчисляемое).
These are – books. The books are good (множественное число).
Вставьте артикль, где необходимо.
1. This is… pen… pen is red.
2. These are pencils.. pencils are black.
3. This is… soup… soup is tasty.
4. In the morning I eat… sandwich and drink… tea.
5. She gave me… coffee and. cake.. coffee was hot and. cake was tasty.
6. Do you like… ice-cream?
7. I see… book in your… hand. Is… book interesting?
8. She bought… meat,… butter and… potatoes yesterday.
9. She also bought… cake… cake was very… tasty. We ate… cake with. tea.
10. This is… bag… bag is brown.
11. It is my sister's… bag.
12. And this is my… bag. It is… yellow.
13. This is. tree.. tree is green.
14. I can see… boys… boys are playing.
15. I have.bicycle… bicycle is black. My friend has no… bicycle.
16. Our… room is large.
17. We wrote… dictation yesterday… dictation was long.
18. She has two… daughters and one… son. Her… son is… pupil.
19. My… brother's… friend has no… dog.
20. This… pencil is broken. Give me that… pencil, please.
21. She has… ball… ball is… big.
22. I got… letter from my… friend yesterday… letter was interesting.
Answer the questions.
1. What is tissue?
2. What are the tissues made of?
3. How many per cents of water do the cells contain?
4. What is dissolved in water?
5. What reactions are necessary for proper body function?
6. What substance is called tissue fluid?
7. How many groups are in the tissue classification?
8. What is lining cellular layer called?
9. What cells form the nervous tissues?
10. Where is smooth muscle tissue found?
Make the sentences of your own using the new words (10 sentences).
Find the definite and indefinite articles in the text.
Find one word, which is a little bit different in meaning from others (найдите одно слово, которое немного отличается от других по смыслу):
1) a) tissue; b) body; c) pen;
2) a) water; b) cell; c) circle;
3) a) muscle; b) arm; c) cold;
4) a) elastic; b) smooth; c) brick;
5) a) fibre; b) cardiac; c) line.
ЛЕКЦИЯ № 3. Epidermis
The integument consists of the skin (epidermis and dermis) and associated appendages (sweat glands, sebaceous glands, hairs, and nails). Considered the largest body organ, the integument comprises approximately 16% of total body weight. It is a highly specialized organ that functions to protect the body from injury, desiccation, and infection. It also participates in sensory reception, excretion, thermoregulation, and maintenance of water balance.
Epidermis is the outermost layer of the integument. It is a stratified squamous epithelial layer of ectodermal origin.
Layers of the epidermis from deep to superficial consist of four strata. Stratum basale (stratum germinativum) is a proliferative basal layer of columnar-like cells that contain the fibrous protein keratin. Stratum spinosum is a multilaminar layer of cuboidal-like cells that are bound together by means of numerous cytoplasmic extensions and des-mosomal junctions.
Stratum granulosum consists of flat polygonal cells filled with ba-sophilic keratohyalin granules. Viewed at the electron microscopic level, these cells also contain numerous mem brane-coating granules. Stratum corneum is the superficial stratum of dead cells and consists of several to many layers of flat, anucleated, and cornified (kerati-nized) cells. In the epidermis of the palms and soles, a thin, transitional zone of flat eosinophilic or pale-staining anucleated cells may occur as the stratum lucidum. This layer is found only in regions with a thick strata corneum.
Cells of the epidermis: keratinocytes are the most numerous and are responsible for the production of the family of keratin proteins that provide the barrier function of the epidermis.
Melanocytes are derivatives of neural crest ectoderm. They are found in the dermis and are also scattered among the keratinocytes in the basal layers of the epidermis. These dendritic cells produce the pigment melanin in the form melanosomes that are transferred to kerati-nocytes.
Langerhans cells are dendritic cells but are members of the immune system and function as antigen-presenting cells. They have also been found in other parts of the body, including the oral cavity and lymph nodes.
Merkel cells are found in the basal epidermis and appear function in concert with nerve fibers that are closely associated with them. At the electron microscopic level, their cytoplasm contains numerous membrane-bound granules that resemble those of catecholamine-pro-ducing cells.
New words
epidermis – эпидермис
dermis – дерма
largest – самый большой
approximately – приблизительно
weight – вес
to protect – защищать
injury – рана
cytoplasmic – цитоплазматический
several – несколько
level – уровень
flat – плоский
palm – ладонь
thick – толстый
pigment – пигмент
melanin – меланин
nerve – нерв
closely – тесно
Запомните следующие словосочетания, в которых артикль не употребляется.
1) at – school;
2) at – home;
3) at – work.
Вставьте артикль, где необходимо.
1. I have two… sisters. My… sisters are… students.
2. We are at… home.
3. My… brother is not at… home, he is at. school.
4. My. mother is at… work. She is… doctor.
5. I am not… doctor.
6. I have no… sisters.
7. He is not… pilot.
8. I have thirty-two… teeth.
9. He has. child.
10. She has two… children. Her children are at… school.
11. Is your father at… home? – No, he is at… work.
12. Where is your… brother? – He is at… home.
Answer the questions.
1. What is epidermis?
2. What is the largest body organ?
3. How many per cents does the integument comprise of total body weight?
4. What is the main function of the integument?
5. Where it also participates in?
6. What is the outermost layer of the integument?
7. What is stratum granulosum consists of?
8. Where is the a thin, transitional zone of flat eosinophilic?
9. What keratin proteins provide?
10. What cells produce the pigment melanin?
Make the sentences of your own using the new words (10 sentences).
Find the definite and indefinite articles in the text.
Find one word, which is a little bit different in meaning from others (найдите одно слово, которое немного отличается от других по смыслу):
1) a) rain; b) epidermis; c) dermis;
2) a) weight; b) person; c) poster;
3) a) palm; b) foot; c) shoes;
4) a) brush; b) pigment; c) skin;
5) a) lash; b) wound; c) injury.
ЛЕКЦИЯ № 4. Dermis
Dermis is a connective tissue layer of mesodermal origin subjacent the epidermis and its basement membrane. The dermis-epidermal junction, especially in thick skin, is characterized by numerous papillary interdigitations of the dermal connective tissue and epidermal epithelium. This increases the surface area of attachment and brings blood vessels in closer proximity to the epidermal cells. The epidemis, like epithelia in general, is devoid of blood vessel. Histologically, der-mis consists of two identifiable regions.
Papillary layer, associated principally with the dermal papillae, is the most superficial layer. It consists of a loosely packed, irregular meshwork of collagen fibrils that contain fine blood vessels and nerve endings.
Reticular layer is the deeper dermal layer and consists of coarse collagen bundles intertwined with elastic fibers in a gel matrix. This layer is a typical dense irregular connective tissue.
HYPODERMIS: this layer of loose vascular connective tissue is infiltrated with adipocytes and corresponds to the superficial fascia of gross anatomy. However, since it contains the deepest portions of the cutaneous glands and hairs, it is also an important part of the skin. The hypodermis fastens the skin to underlying muscles and other structures.
New words
dermis – дерма
connective – соединительный
membrane – мембрана
junction – соединение
to be characterized by – характеризоваться чем-то
numerous – значительный
to increase – увеличивать
surface – поверхность
area – площадь
bring – приносить
to consists of – состоять из
to contain – содержать
collagen – коллагеновый
Если перед существительным употребляется прилагательное, оно стоит между артиклем и существительным.
E. g. This is a book. This is a good book.
Вставьте артикль, где необходимо
1. We have… large… family.
2. My granny often tells us… long… interesting… stories.
3. My… father is… engineer. He works at… factory… factory is large.
4. My… mother is… doctor. She works at… large. hospital. She is at… work now.
5. My… aunt is… teacher. She works at… school… school is good. My… aunt is not at… school now.
6. She is at… home. She is drinking… tea and eating… jam… jam is sweet.
7. I am at home, too. I am drinking… tea and eating… sandwich… sandwich is tasty.
8. My sister is at… school. She is… pupil.
9. My cousin has… big… black… cat. My cousin's… cat has two… kittens.
10… cat likes… milk… kittens like… milk, too.
11. I am… engineer.
12. My… son is… pupil.
13. He is… good… pupil.
14. This is… house.
15. This is my… pencil.
16. You have some… pen cils, but I have no… pencil. Give me… pencil, please.
17. I like your… beautiful… flower. Give me… flower, please.
18. My… mother is at… home. She is reading… interesting… book.
19. My… father is not at… home. He is at… work. He is… doctor.
20. He is… good… doctor. He works at… hospital… hospital is large.
Answer the questions.
1. What is dermis?
2. What does dermis consist of?
3. What is the dermis-epidermal junction characterized by?
4. What increases the surface area of attachment?
5. What is the epidemis devoid of?
6. What is principally associated with the dermal papillae?
7. What is reticular layer consists of?
8. What is typical dense irregular connective tissue?
9. What does epidermis consists of?
10. What contains the deepest portions of the cutaneous glands?
Make the sentences of your own using the new words (10 sentences).
Find the definite and indefinite articles in the text.
Find one word, which is a little bit different in meaning from others (найдите одно слово, которое немного отличается от других по смыслу):
1) a) skin; b) knife; c) dermis;
2) a) fire; b) membrane; c) cell;
3) a) connective; b) collagen; c) table;
4) a) nose; b) book; c) mouth;
5) a) ear; b) throat; c) skirt.
ЛЕКЦИЯ № 5. Cutaneous appendages
Cutaneous appendages are all derivatives of the epidermis.
Eccrine (merocrine) sweat glands are simple, coiled, tubular glands that are widely distributed over the body. Secretory portions are tightly coiled and consist of a single layer of columnar-like pyramidal cells. They extend deep with in the dermis or hypodermis, where they are surrounded by myoepithelial cells, which aid in the discharge of secretion by contraction.
Duct portions, composed of two cuboidal cell layers, are corkscrew-shaped and open onto the epidermal surface. The luminal diameter of the duct is less than that of the secretory coil. These glands are important in thermal regulation. When hypotonic sweat is released onto the body surface, heat is lost by water evaporation.
Control of the eccrine glands is mainly by the innervation of choli-nergic fibers.
Apocrine sweat glands are also simple, coiled, tubular glands but are much less abundant in their distribution than eccrine glands. They can be found in the axillary, areolar, and anal regions.
Secretory portions of these glands are composed of a single layer of cuboidal or columnar cells. They are larger and have a much wider luminal diameter than eccrine sweat glands. Myoepithelial cells surround the secretory cells within the basement membrane and contract to facilitate secretion.
Duct portions are similar to those of eccrine sweat glands but open onto hair follicles instead of onto the epidermal surfaces.
Functions of these glands in humans is not at all clear. In other mammals, apocrine sweat glands are widely distributed over the body and serve a variety of functions related to olfaction and behavior. Specialized apocrine glands in the ear canal (ceruminous glands) produce a secretion in conjunction with adjacent sebaceous glands to form the protective earwax (cerumen). Apocrine sweat is normally odorless when secreted but becomes noticeable due to the activity of cutaneous bacteria. Control of the apocrine glands is hormonal and via the innervation of adrenergic fibers. These glands do not begin to function until puberty.
Sebaceous glands are simple, branched holocrine acinar glands. They usually discharge their secretions onto the hair shaft within hair follicles. These glands are found in the dermis throught the skin, except on the palms and soles.
Secretory portions consist of peripherally located, flattened stem cells that resemble basal keratinocytes. Toward the center of the acini, enlarged differentiated cells are engorged with lipid. Death and fragmentation of cells nearest the duct portion result in the holocrine mechanism of secretion.
Duct portions of sebaceous glands are composed of stratified squamous epithelium that is continuous with the hair cat and epidermal surface.
Functions involve the lubrication of both hairs and cornified layers of the skin, as well as resistance to desiccation.
Control of sebaceous glands is hormonal. Enlargement of the acini occurs at puberty.
Hairs are long, filamentous projections consisting of dead keratini-zed epidermal cells. Each hair derives from an epidermal invagination called the hair follicle, which possesses a terminal hair bulb, located in the dermis or hypodermis, from which the hair shaft grows. Bundles of smooth muscle cells, called arrector pili muscles, are attached to the hair follicle at one end and the papillary dermis at the other. Contraction of these muscles raise the hairs and dimple the epidermis («goose flesh»). The follicles and associated sebaceous glands are known as pi-losebaceous units.
Nails, like hair, are a modified stratum corneum of the epidermis. They contain hard keratin that forms in a manner similar to the formation of hair. Cells continually proliferate and keratinize from the stratum basale of the nail matrix.
New words
cutaneous – кожный
appendace – покров
coiled – намотанный
tubular – трубчатый
widely – широко
to distribute – распространять
columnar-like – колоночноподобный
pyramidal – пирамидальный
surface – поверхность
duct portions – части трубочки
corkscrew-shaped – имеющий форму штопора
luminal – люминал
thermal – тепловой
innervation – иннервация
abundant – в изобилии
to facilitate – облегчать
Часто, при первом упоминании предмета, тем не менее не рекомендуется перед ним употреблять определенный артикль:
1) если упоминаемый предмет является единственным в мире:
Е. g. The sun is shining brightly;
2) если этот предмет является определенным по ситуации:
Е. g. Put the book on the table.
Вставьте артикль, где необходимо.
1. What's… weather like today? -… weather is fine.
2… sun is yellow.
3… sky is grey today.
4… earth is… planet.
5. We had… English lesson yesterday… teacher asked me many… questions… questions were difficult.
6. Where is your… brother? – He is at… home. He is in his… room. He is sitting at… table. He is doing his… homework… homework is difficult.
7. Our… cat is sitting on… sofa.
8. It is very dark in… room. Turn on… light, please.
9. Nick went into… bathroom, turned on… water and washed his hands.
10. This is… good… book. Take… book from… table. Put this… book into… bookcase.
11… weath er is fine today… sky is blue… sun is shining brightly in… blue… sky.
12. This is… boy… boy is… school. He is… pupil.
13. This… boy is my… brother's friend.
14. He has… cat, but he has no. dog.
15. He likes his…cat.
16. He gives. cat… milk every day.
17. Yesterday I received… letter from my… friend… letter was interesting.
18. We live in… big house. I like… house very much.
19. Are you. worker? – No, I am… student.
20. Is this… table? – Yes, this is a table.
Answer the questions.
1. What are all derivatives of the epidermis?
2. What do secretory portions consist of?
3. How much do secretory portions extend?
4. What are duct portions composed of?
5. In what regulation are glands important?
6. What is surrounded by myoepithelial cells?
7. What is the result in the holocrine mechanism of secretion?
8. What are duct portions of sebaceous glands composed of?
9. What does each hair derive from?
10. What contain hard keratin?
Make the sentences of your own using the new words (10 sentences).
Find the definite and indefinite articles in the text.
Find one word, which is a little bit different in meaning from others (найдите одно слово, которое немного отличается от других по смыслу):
1) a) cutaneous; b) skin; c) face;
2) a) cold; b) heat; c) thermal;
3) a) mouth; b) nose; c) arm;
4) a) nail; b) hair; c) skin;
5) a) neck; b) head; c) string.
ЛЕКЦИЯ № 6. Matter
Matter is anything that occupies space, possesses mass and can be perceived by our sense organs. It exists in nature in three, usually inter convertible physical states: solids, liquids and gases. For instance, ice, water and steam are respectively the solid, liquid and gaseous states of water. Things in the physical world are made up of a relatively small number of basic materials combined in various ways. The physical material of which everything that we can see or touch is made is matter. Matter exists in three different states: solid, liquid and gaseous. Human senses with the help of tools allow us to determine the properties of matter. Matter can undergo a variety of changes – physical and chemical, natural and controlled.
Chemistry and physics deal with the study of matter, its properties, changes and transformation with energy. There are two kinds of properties: physical – colour, taste, odour, density, hardness, solubility and ability to conduct electricity and heat; in solids the shape of their crystals is significant, freezing and boiling points of liquids.
Chemical properties are the changes in composition undergone by a substance when it is subjected to various conditions. The various changes may be physical and chemical. The physical properties are temporary. In a chemical change the composition of the substance is changed and new products are formed. Chemical properties are permanent.
It is useful to classify materials as solid, liquid or gas (though water, for example, exists as solid (ice), as liquid (water) and as gas (water vapour). The changes of state described by the terms solidify (freeze), liquify (melt), vapourise (evaporate) and condense are examples of physical changes. After physical change there is still the same material. Water is water whether it is solid, liquid or gas. Also, there is still the same mass of material. It is usually easy to reverse a physical change.
New words
matter – материя
anything – все
to occupy – занимать
space – пространство
to possesses – владеть, обладать
mass – масса
sense – чувство
organ – орган
steam – пар
to exist – существовать
can – мочь
to undergo – подвергать
variety – разнообрзие
change – перемена
physical – физический
chemical – химический
natural – природный
transformation – трансформация
colour – цвет
taste – вкус
odour – запах
density – плотность
hardness – твердость
solubility – растворимость
ability – возможность
to conduct – проводить
permanent – постоянный
Существует огромное количество так называемых застывших словосочетаний, в которых артикль употребляется или отсутствует традиционно. Эти словосочетания приходится заучивать наизусть.
Запомните следующие конструкции.
There is a…
Where is the…?
Запомните также следующие предложения.
The (book) is on the (table).
Ho: The (book) is on a little (table).
Вставьте артикль, где необходимо.
1. Where is… soup? -… soup is in… big saucepan on… gas-cooker.
2. Where are… cut lets? -… cutlets are in… refrigerator on… lit tle plate.
3. There is no… bread on… table. Where In… bread?
4. There is… little brown coffee-table in our… room in… front of… sofa.
5. Where is… table in your… room?
6. There is… thick carpet on… floor in my mother's room.
7. Is your brother at… home? – No, he is at… work. He works at… big factory. He is… engineer.
8. My sister has many… books… books are in… big bookcase.
9… weather is fine today. Let's go and play in… yard.
10. There are many… children in… yard. They are playing with… ball.
11. Where is… cat? -… cat is on… sofa.
12. Where is… book? -… book is on… shelf.
13. Where are… flowers? -… flowers are in… beautiful vase.
14. Where is… vase? -… vase is on… little table near… window.
15. Open… win dow, please… weather is fine today.
16. I can see… sun in… sky. I can see… nice little bird… bird is sitting in… big tree… tree is green.
17. There is… little white cloud in… sky.
18. We have. large room.
19. There is… big sofa in… room and… little lamp on… wall over… sofa.
20. I like to sit on… sofa and read… good book.
Answer the questions.
1. What is matter?
2. What does matter occupy?
3. Where does matter exist?
4. What are things in the physical world made up of?
5. What states does matter exist in?
6. What can matter undergo?
7. How many kinds of properties are there?
8. Are chemical properties permanent?
9. What may the various changes be?
10. Is it easy to reverse a physical change?
Make the sentences of your own using the new words (10 sentences).
Find the definite and indefinite articles in the text.
Find one word, which is a little bit different in meaning from others (найдите одно слово, которое немного отличается от других по смыслу):
1) a) nothing; b) anything; c) everything;
2) a) sense; b) feeling; c) gas;
3) a) ring; b) odour; c) taste;
4) a) colour; b) green; c) table;
5) a) feet; b) arms; c) molecule.
ЛЕКЦИЯ № 7. Skeletal system
The components of the skeletal system are derived from mesenchy-mal elements that arise from mesoderm and neural crest. Mesenchy-mal cells differentiate into fibroblasts, chondroblasts, and osteoblasts, which produce connective tissue, cartilage, and bone tissue, respectively. Bone organs either develop directly in mesenchymal connective tissue (intramembranous ossification) or from preformed cartilage models (endochondral ossification). In general, the skeletal muscles differentiate from paraxial mesoderm. The splanch nic mesoderm gives rise to cardiac and smooth muscle.
The integument consists of the epidermis and its derivatives (glands, hairs, nails), and the underlying dermis. The epider mis is derived from ectoderm, whereas the dermis is formed from mesenchyme. Melanocytes, which may occur in both layers, originate from neural crest.
The skeletal system develops from paraxial mesoderm, which forms a column of tissue blocks, called the somites, on either side of the neural tube. Each somite becomes differentiated into a ventromedial part, the sclerotome, and a dorsolateral part, the dermomyotome. By the end of the fourth week, the sclerotome cells form embryonic connective tissue, known as mesenchyme. Mesenchyme cells migrate and differentiate to form fibroblasts, chondroblasts, or osteoblasts.
Bone organs are formed by two methods.
Flat bones are formed by a process known as intramembinous ossification, in which bones develop directly within mesenchyme.
Long bones are formed by a process known as endochondral ossification, in which mesenchymal cells give rise hyaline cartilage models that subsequently become ossified.
Skull formation. The neurocranium provides protection around the brain, and the viscerocranium forms the skeleton the face.
Neurocranium is divided into two portions:
The membranous neurocranium consists of flat bones that surround the brain as a vault. The bones appose one another at sutures and fon-tanelles, which allow overlap of bones during birth and remain membranous until adulthood. Palpation of the anterior fontanelle, where the two parietal and frontal bones meet, provides information about the progress of ossification and intracranial pressure.
The cartilaginous neurocranium (chondro-cranium) of the base of the skull is formed by fusion and ossification of number of separate cartilages along the median plate.
Viscerocranium arises primarily from the first two pharynge arches.
Appendicular system: The pectoral and pelvic girdles and the limbs comprise the appendicular system.
Except for the clavicle, most bones of the system are end chondral. The limbs begin as mesenchymal buds with an apical ectodermal ridge covering, which exerts an inductive influence over the mesen-chyme.
Bone formation occurs by ossification of hyaline cartilage models.
The process begins at the end of the embryonic period in the primary ossification centers, which are located in the shaft, or diaphysis, of the long bones. At the epiphyses, or bone extremities, ossification begins shortly after birth.
The cartilage that remains between the diaphysis and the epiphyses of a long bone is known as the epiphysial plate. It is the site of growth of long bones until they attain their final size and the epiphysial plate disappears.
Vertebral column.
During the fourth week, sclerotome cells migrate medially to surround the spinal cord and notochord. After proliferation of the caudal portion of the sclerotomes, the vertebrae are formed, each consisting of the caudal part of one sclerotome and cephalic part of the next.
While the notochord persists in the areas of the vertebral bod ies, it degenerates between them, forming the nucleus pulposus. The latter, together with surrounding circular fibers of the annulus fibrosis, forms the intervertebral disc.
New words
skeletal – скелетный
mesoderm – мезодерма
neural – нервный
crest – гребень
cartilage – хрящ
fibroblasts – фибробласты
chondroblasts – хондробласты
osteoblasts – остеобласты
paraxial – параксиальный
which – который
may – мочь, может
flat – плоский
bone – кость
to provide – снабжать
protection – защита
long – длинный
Запомните следующее застывшее словосочетание.
In front
Запомните следующие конструкции, требующие неопределенного артикля.
I have a…
Не has a…
I see a…
I am a…
He is a.
She is a.
This is a.
That is a.
It is a…
There is a.
Вставьте артикль, где необходимо.
1. We have… big dog… dog is very clever.
2. My friend has… very good computer.
3. This… boy is big. He is… student.
4. There is… very big piano in. hall.
5. This is. tree and that is not… tree. It's. bush.
6. I am… boy. I am… pupil. I learn at… school.
7. My sister is at… work. She is… secretary. She works at… large office.
8. This is… very difficult question. I don't know. answer to it.
9. Do you see… little girl with… big ball in her… hands? She is… pupil of our… school.
10. There was… beautiful flower in this… vase yesterday. Where is … flower now?
Answer the questions.
1. Where the components of the skeletal system are derived from?
2. What do mesenchymal cells differentiate into?
3. What produces connective tissue, cartilage, and bone tissue?
4. What does the splanch nic mesoderm give rise?
5. What does the integument consist of?
6. What is the skeletal system developed from?
7. How many portions is neurocranium divided into?
8. What does the membranous neurocranium consist of?
9. Where does viscerocranium arise primarily?
10. During what week do sclerotome cells migrate?
Make the sentences of your own using the new words (10 sentences).
Find the definite and indefinite articles in the text.
Find one word, which is a little bit different in meaning from others (найдите одно слово, которое немного отличается от других по смыслу):
1) a) bone; b) pen; c) skeletal;
2) a) strong; b)weak; c) powerful;
3) a) water; b)rain; c)steam;
4) a) wind; b) storm; c) easy;
5) a) hot; b)sun; c) winter.
The free sample has ended.
