The World of Russian emigres in the late XX – early XXI centuries

In the 1990s-2000s, an intensive multidimensional dialogue between the state, the society of the Russian Federation and the world of foreign compatriots outside the former USSR ensured the restoration of the unity of cultural and historical tradition and the de-ideologization of their images. Gradually, information gaps were filled, and mental contradictions were largely smoothed out, which was facilitated by extensive contacts between Russians and communities of Russian emigrants and their descendants on a personal and public level. Hundreds of scientific publications, articles, numerous publishing and museum projects, ample information on the media convincingly testify to the fact that the legacy of the Russian emigration of the 1920 – mid-1980s has become an organic part of the Russian science and culture. Thus, many values and meanings (from deep inborn knowledge of traditions of the pre-revolutionary era to creative achievements of outstanding Russian intelligentsia in the late 20^th century) became a starting point for shaping modern scientific knowledge, education, art, various public initiatives.

The current modernization of the Russian Federation and the search for possible directions of its further historical development are largely related to the adoption of traditional cultural values of the Russia abroad, based on centuries-old cultural foundations. At the same time, a new vision of Russia and Russian history, including a keener and more objective view of the Soviet era and the social and cultural life in the USSR, has emerged in the Russian community abroad.

In the 1990s, the emergence of Russian-speaking communities and their socially and politically difficult life in the young states of the former Soviet republics created a completely new model of relations between the metropolis and the diaspora in the Russian history. This time Russia acted as a focal point for Russian compatriots living in “new foreign countries,” and later, after overcoming its own social and economic problems and regaining international influence, Russia became a champion of their civil rights and cultural and linguistic identity. Migration flows from the CIS and the Baltic States to Russia in the 1990s included a significant number of Russian-speaking migrants who left the territories of the young post-Soviet states due to social and political instability and changing legal status of the Russian language. The adoption of the languages of the title peoples as State languages has become a major challenge for administrative staff, teachers, and higher education teachers, especially the older generation. In addition, the Russian-speaking population was subjected to moral pressure, and, in a number of countries, to direct threats from radical nationalists with the tacit support of some local elites. The result of this process was the exodus of a mass of diploma holders and qualified workers to Russia and the West resulting in smaller number and lower quality of Russian-speaking communities in the near abroad.^[14] Later, the young generation of foreign compatriots in the post-Soviet space for the most part chose the integration into the societies of their countries, but many also sought to preserve family traditions, the Russian language. They educated their children in the spirit of the Russian culture, thus being involved in the social life of their diasporas and Russian cultural policy centers abroad. At the same time, the most socially active representatives of Russian compatriots in the CIS countries (entrepreneurs, students, artists) joined the Russian-speaking communities in Western Europe, the USA, Canada, Israel, and Australia. In the 2000s, the majority of institutional structures of the Russian community abroad outside the post-Soviet space were small Russian societies and clubs in large cities, regions or states in different countries based on the principle of association of fellow-countrymen or knowledge of the Russian language. As a rule, they were united in associations within the country. The founder and most active participants were mainly first or second-generation emigrants or citizens of the Russian Federation (as well as of other post-Soviet states) permanently residing abroad. Such associations were most common in those regions of the world where the number of Russian compatriots had increased significantly in recent years, for example in Italy, Spain, Greece, Czech Republic, Bulgaria, Germany, Norway, China, etc. By this time, the 20^th century emigrants and their descendants had been strongly assimilated and dissociated with the exception of communities of Russian compatriots in France and the USA. They were the largest centers of Russian emigration, which preserved the system of traditional diaspora structures (military historical societies, Russian schools and youth organizations, church parishes, publishing houses, bookstores, etc.). A key aspect of the institutional development of the modern Russian community abroad was the emergence of various communities on-line. The majority originated from international social media, feedback from readers of e-magazines in Russian, advertising needs of businesses that used the Russian-language Golden Pages and other similar information sources, etc.

The public policy of the Russian Federation on the promotion of the cultural dialogue with the Russian community abroad promotes regular World Congress of Compatriots Living Abroad and the Coordinating Council of Russian Compatriots, as well as the activities of the Russkiy Mir Foundation, Russian diplomatic institutions and representative offices of the Federal Agency for CIS Affairs, compatriots living abroad, and international humanitarian cooperation (Rossotrudnichestvo). The result of these projects was the Russian Centers of Science and Culture operating in the Russian community abroad under the auspices of Russian public and private organizations. They have helped the society of foreign compatriots to bond over their interest in the culture, language, modern life, and traditions of their historical homeland. At the same time, a considerable information space (including the Russian-language foreign press, literature, and the Internet) was filled with a lot of historical documents, memoirs, studies, popular scientific texts, which more and more fully revealed the complex, contradictory nature of historical ways of Russia and Russians in the 20^th century. Russian state institutions and public organizations working in the held of cooperation with foreign compatriots have created information portals that allow to develop cooperation and cultural dialogue on a global level.

The key to understanding the essence of modern dialogue between the Russian Federation and communities of foreign compatriots is the ideology of the “Russian World.” The unity of the Russian community abroad and modern Russians is being created, i. e. it is based on a mutual recognition of the common historical past and tolerance toward it. In Moscow, a participant of the 5^th World Congress of Compatriots Living Abroad presented the idea of the Russian world as a civilized historical and cultural community:

The Russian world is a planetary space with millions of people creating a Russian identity. And the Russian world does not need any proof of its existence! Here we have Russia with a unique and inimitable inflorescence of cultures of many ethnicities. There we have millions of our compatriots for whom the world without Tolstoy and Dostoyevsky, Tchaikovsky and Rachmaninov, Chaliapin and Hkhvorostovsky, Tupolev and Sikorsky, Rodnina and Kharlamov would be imperfect. The Russian world is a kind of noosphere, so to say, which includes both East and West. Rudyard Kipling once said ‘East is East, and West is West, and never the twain shall meet,” but in Russia, as in the Lobachevskian Geometry, those that cannot meet nevertheless do meet.^[15]

An active promoter of the Russian world concept in the international information space is the Russkiy Mir Foundation and its centres overseas. It is noteworthy that the annual Assemblies of the Russian World are held on November 3, on the eve of the Day of National Unity. The Foundation, whose main task is to support and promote the Russian language worldwide, also implements the principle of moving to the future in line with a continuous historical tradition, focusing on new generations of the international community of the Russian world in all its diversity and uniqueness. Vyacheslav Nikonov, Executive Director of the Russkiy Mir Foundation, speaking at the opening of the Third Assembly of the Russian World in the MSU Intellectual Centre in 2009, said,

The Russian world is not a memory of the past, but a dream of the future of people belonging to a great culture, who are acutely responsive to injustice, who care about notions of honour, service, who are constantly striving for freedom.^[16]

The concept of the unified cultural and spiritual space of the Russian world is extremely important for the further development of the domestic and foreign policy of the Russian Federation on compatriots abroad. It has been formulated for quite a long period of time. Obviously, the ideological and cultural gap that existed for decades cannot be bridged overnight. In the 1990s, when the Soviet historiography in Russia was being revised, including the period of the revolution and the Russian civil war, of the topic of the ideological confrontation between the USSR and Russian emigration remained highly politicized among the intelligentsia both at home and abroad. The dialogue with the Russian community living far abroad began to reach a qualitatively new, constructive level, when the Russian intellectual environment, education, and enlightenment systems and mass media established modern approaches to the Russian history which sought to create an objective picture of the historical process through a civilized and tolerant scientific discourse.

The visit of the President of the Russian Federation Vladimir Putin in November 2000 to Sainte-Genevieve-des-Bois Russian Cemetery near Paris was a symbolic step in this direction. The Russian President laid wreaths at the graves of Vika Obolenskaya, a prominent member of the French Resistance movement, and the great Russian writer Ivan Bunin. Standing at the graves of the White movement participants, Vladimir Putin expressed the sentiment that was later widely reported in the press: “We are children of the same mother, Russia, and it’s time for us to unite.” In 2003, during a meeting with representatives of the Russian emigration, again in France, at the Hotel de Ville in Paris, President of Russia Vladimir Putin reiterated that the memory of the tragic events endured by our country should become the basis for joint fruitful work of the Russian nationals and compatriots abroad for the benefit of the future Russia. The same idea was put forward in the opening speech of Vladimir Putin before the participants of the 4^th World Congress of Compatriots in Moscow on October 26, 2012:

You share a common concern for Russia’s future and its people, a commitment to be useful to your historical homeland, to promote its socioeconomic development and strengthen its international authority and prestige.^[17]

In fact, the same call was addressed to the citizens of Russia and their compatriots living abroad, the appeal for a consensus and unification on the basis of a common goal which is the peace and prosperity of the Motherland, regardless of political views, religious beliefs, professional interests, etc. It is on the same basis that a modern course of the development of relations between Russia and the Russian community abroad at the state and social level is being shaped. This course is aimed at cooperation in the present and the future.

At a meeting with historians in Tyumen, Chairman of the Russian Historical Society Sergey Naryshkin also discussed the topic of historical understanding of the events of the revolution of 1917 and the ensuing civil war.

I believe that the centennial celebrations in 2017 should result in a deep reflection on the lessons learned and become a tribute to the memory of our ancestors regardless of their political beliefs. There should be no belated settling of accounts and division into who was right and who was wrong,’ said Naryshkin. ‘The revolution’s contemporaries have long been gone: both the heroes and the perpetrators on both sides. A century is enough to see those events not as a reason to split the society, but as a historical event, “a fact of biography”.’^[18]

The participants of the V World Congress of Compatriots said they were seeking an informed, objective assessment of the events of the past. They also discussed a project aimed at building a National Reconciliation monument to the centenary of the October Revolution. Prince Nikita Lobanov-Rostovsky, who offered this idea, stressed in his speech that there could be no unity without tolerance and reconciliation.^[19]

A number of important thoughts on the vision of national history were expressed in the community of Russian compatriots at the VI Assembly of the Russian World, held on November 3, 2012 in Moscow under the motto Russian language and Russian history. The Director of the Institute of Russian History of the Russian Academy of Sciences Yuri Petrov, summing up the discussion on the Year of Russian History, stressed that the diversity of views in the scientific community is undoubtedly necessary for the development of scientific knowledge, but the pluralism of opinions does not cancel the task of developing coordinated positions on key issues in the Russian history:

Unlike the elites, in science, not only diversity is not prohibited, but even welcomed. All this is good,’ said Yuri Petrov. ‘But I believe we need a new national history, and the Institute of Russian History has suggested such an initiative. We have spearheaded this project which should unite all experts on Russian history including Russian nationals, members of the Russian world, and the best foreign professionals.^[20]

The world of Russian compatriots abroad is undoubtedly socially and politically heterogeneous when it comes to the historical retrospective and modern events in Russia and abroad. This heterogeneity often affects the internal life of Russian-speaking communities, leads to controversy and disputes, instability in the composition of coordination councils and other representative bodies in a given country, etc. At the same time, almost all institutional structures of Russia Abroad (Russian Centers, schools, clubs, etc.) directly engage with Rossotrudnichestvo and institutions of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation, representative offices of the Russkiy Mir Foundation, or with public organizations close to Russia in spirit and nature of their activities.

Currently, of the development of the public life in Russia shows an increase in activity and number of people participating in cultural and historical associations addressing the consolidation of the Russian society, including the continuity of traditions within the Russian culture in all their diversity and complexity. This trend also creates new opportunities for widening the dialogue with the world of Russian compatriots living abroad. At present, the historical retrospective and modern life of the Russian foreign countries are reflected in the activities of the leading public associations of national figures of science, culture, and enlightenment, i. e. the Russian Historical Society (RHS), the Russian Military Historical Society (RMHS), the Russian Society of Historians and Archivists (ROIA), the Russian Society Znanie and the Imperial Orthodox Palestine Society (IPPO). Their close ties with the Russian community abroad are based on a common determination to restore and preserve historical memory and cultural traditions covering all chronological and territorial flows of the Russian “time river.” Most of these societies have their prototypes in well-known pre-revolutionary scientific and cultural organizations with high reputation in the scientific world. Thus, the Imperial Russian Historical Society (IRHS), founded in 1866 in St. Petersburg, united not only famous historians, but also high military and civil officials who contributed to the study of the Russian history and archaeology. In 1909–1917, the IRHS was chaired by Grand Duke Nikolai Mikhailovich, who was executed by the Bolsheviks in Petrograd in 1919. Other members of the IRHS dissolved after the revolution were also repressed. Thus, for the Russian scientific emigration, the Imperial Russian Historical Society was not only part of the corporate tradition, but was also surrounded by an aura of memories of the tragic days when the empire collapsed.

There have been three attempts by the Russian community abroad to revive the Russian Historical Society. It was spearheaded by an outstanding historian Yevgeny Shmurlo (1853–1934), a representative of the St. Petersburg Sergei Platonov’s historical school, author of scientific works and documentary publications on the history of Russia during the era of Peter the Great, the Russian-Italian relations and the contacts between Russia and the Vatican in the 17^th century, etc. By 1917, Yevgeny Shmurlo was a member of the Russian Academy of Sciences in the category of historical and political sciences, the Russian Geographical and Archaeological societies, the Historical Society at the St. Petersburg University and several provincial academic archive commissions. In emigration, Shmurlo was among the leaders of the Russian historical science abroad, participating in the work of the Academic Council and Academic Commission of the Russian Foreign Historical Archive, the philological department of the Russian Academic Board and the Russian Academic Group in Czechoslovakia. In 1925–1932, he headed the Russian Historical Society in Prague, which operated under the auspices of the Union of Russian Academic Organizations Abroad. His successor for two years was Aleksandr Kizevetter (1866–1933), a graduate of the Moscow University, student of Vasiliy Klyuchevsky and Pavel Vinogradov, one of the leading specialists in the history of the 18^th century Russia. He was also a politician, a member of the Central Committee of the Constitutional Democratic Party and a member of the second State Duma. In Prague, in the 1920s and 1930s, Kizevetter gave lectures at Charles University and at emigrant institutions, i. e. the Russian Law Department and the People’s University. The emigrant RHS also included Petr Struve, Venedikt Miakotin, Antoniy Florovsky, Georgiy Florovsky, and other representatives of the Russian humanitarian science who lived in Czechoslovakia in the interbellum. It was

an association of intellectuals, the elite of Russian historical science, who in difficult circumstances of emigration remained faithful to the cause of all their lives: historical science. The main focus of their activities within the framework of the RHS was the preparation of collections of scientific works, i. e. “Notes of the Russian Historical Society in Prague”. In 1940, the activities of the RHS were banned by the German occupation authorities, and its chairman Antoniy Florovsky was arrested.

In 1937, a group of Russian scientists in San Francisco came up with an idea of recreating the Russian Historical Society in America, and a year later an edition of “Notes” was issued. The RHS in San Francisco was a predecessor of the famous Museum of Russian Culture, which was founded in 1948 and played an extremely important role in collecting the historical and cultural heritage of the Russian emigration in the United States. In the early 1990s, another attempt was made by a small group of enthusiasts in the United States to revive the Russian Historical Society. Under its auspices two additional volumes of the “Russian Biographical Dictionary” were published to be discontinued in 1917. On National Unity Day, November 4, 2004, the Russian Historical Society Abroad announced the resumption of its activities at home; Petr Aleksandrov-Derkachenko was elected as Chairman. (Currently, the Russian Historical Society Abroad has an office in Moscow and is a member of the Russian Historical Society).

The Imperial Russian Military Historical Society (IRMHS), founded in 1907, united military historians, including representatives of officers and generals, archivists, publishers, museologists. Cavalry General Dmitriy Scalon was elected Chairman of the Council of IRHMS. In 1912, he was replaced by Lieutenant General Nikolai Mikhnevich. Both served as Chief of General Staff, which ensured a high level of official and personal interaction of the IRMHS Council with the army, administrative and scientific institutions. The Society saw its task in studying and promoting the military history of Russia, including publication of scientific works, memoirs, epistolary sources and other documentary materials of military history; the search and archaeological research of places of battles; immortalizing the memory of Russian soldiers; the creation and arrangement of military history museums, collection of uniforms, weapons, awards, banners, and other paraphernalia. Periodicals published by IRMHS, i. e. the Journal of the Imperial Russian Military Historical Society, Works of the Imperial Russian Military Historical Society and Notes of the department of military archaeology and archeography, were popular among military intellectuals and a wide range of readers interested in military history. The active work of the Society was curtailed with the beginning of World War I, when most of its members went to the front, and in 1917 it officially ceased to exist. A number of its members, while in exile, continued their military-historical works, which became part of the scientific heritage of the Russian world, and in 1990-2000s entered the national scientific information space.

It should be noted that in pre-revolutionary Russia there were other military scientific societies engaged in historical research. Thus, in 1898, in St. Petersburg, a group of officers established the Society of Military Knowledge Zealots, headed by military historian Colonel Aleksandr Myshlayevsky. Later, the Society’s branches were established in Riga, Vilna, Minsk, Suvalki, Chuguyev, Khabarovsk, Tiflis, Libav, Samarkand, Ashgabat and Warsaw. The Society of Military Knowledge Zealots in its classes and publications dealt mainly with issues of military theory in connection with the military conflicts of the time, namely the Anglo-Boer War, the Boxing Uprising in China, the Russian-Japanese War, etc., but there were also reports on military historical topics.

In the 1920s and 1930s, in most centres of Russian emigration in Europe, the U. S. and China, there were officer societies and unions the participants of which studied various problems of military history and prepared documentary publications and memoirs. The scope of their interests mainly included understanding of the events and results of the First World War of 1914–1918 and the Civil War of 1917–1922 in Russia with the majority of emigrant officers and generals being veterans of these conflicts. The military press of the Russian community abroad, for example La Sentinelle magazine, bulletin of the Gallipoli Society, etc., covered the outcomes of their scientific and creative activities. Later, in 1950-1970s in Paris, there was the Society of Russian Military Antiquities Enthusiasts, which published 50 issues of the Military Historical Bulletin. Thus, the traditions of the Imperial Russian Military Historical Society and other military scientific associations of the tsarist Russia became an important part of the corporate culture of the Russian military emigration, its scientific and publishing heritage, and found their continuation in the activities of modern Russian historical and cultural organizations like the RMHS and the Russian Historical Society.

Numerous members of the pre-revolutionary Imperial Orthodox Palestinian Society also found themselves in exile after 1917. In particular, the grandfather of Nikita Lobanov-Rostovsky, the Deputy Chairman of the International Council of Russian Compatriots (ICRC), was Treasurer of the Society before the revolution. At the same time, the Palestinian society continued to exist as a research orientalist structure within the system of the USSR Academy of Sciences. (In 1992, it was returned the former name and functions of the manager of pilgrimage trips of Russians to the Holy Land).

Accordingly, the management and the members of these organizations hold dear both their own, corporate historical tradition, and the very idea of preserving historical memory, including the objective interpretation of documentary evidence of the past, recovering the memory of forgotten names and dates, the protection of national history from accidental distortion and intentional falsification.

The acknowledgment of the Russia Abroad by the public as an integral part of Russian history and an important component of cultural and scientific life in modern Russia has become one of the tasks of the Russian Historical Society is a. In the summer of 2012, ITAR-TASS circulated a statement by the State Duma Speaker Sergey Naryshkin about the upcoming revival of the RHS:

Creating, or rather recreating, the Russian Historical a decision long overdue. We must do everything to ensure that events under its auspices are not diurnal, but a basis for sustainable traditions. The same was once attempted by our predecessors from the Imperial Russian Historical Society.

Sergey Naryshkin also stressed that the emigrant period in the history of RHS deserves special attention and respect, because “even in those difficult circumstances, members of the Society did a lot to preserve our historical memory.” This message was posted on the Russkiy Mir portal and in the Russian-speaking foreign media.^[21]

On June 20, 2012, the Reception House of the Government of the Russian Federation held the first meeting of the Russian Historical Society, with T1 leading Russian educational, scientific and cultural institutions, research funds, and mass media as its founders. The meeting was attended by heads of federal executive bodies, members of the Council of Federation, members of the State Duma of the Russian Federation, representatives of public organizations and the scientific and expert community. The Speaker of the State Duma Sergey Naryshkin, elected Chairman of the RHS, noted that an important task for the Historical Society will be ‘strengthening ties with compatriots abroad. Among other things, to preserve the memory of those who found themselves abroad in the aftermath of the revolution and civil war. And also – to return relics and documents directly related to landmark historical events back to our country.’^[22] In his speech, Sergey Naryshkin also emphasized the importance of updating the experience of the past decades and its relevance in the process of modern development of Russia and the Russian world.

The main activity of the RHS as the largest and most reputable association of intellectual elites is to support the most significant educational and scientific projects, including those concerned with the development of international cultural dialogue within the Russian world. Since its creation, the RHS and, personally, its Chairman Sergey Naryshkin, have taken an active part in developing cultural dialogue with the world of Russian compatriots abroad, such as holding international conferences and round tables, preparing for historical, documentary, and art exhibitions related to the topic of Russian emigration in 19^th-20^th centuries and today’s Russian community abroad.

With the support of the RHS, international-level projects involving representatives of the Russian community abroad are being implemented in various cities of Russia, for instance the Franco-Russian workshop “France-Russia, 1914–1918: from alliance to cooperation” held in 2014 in Yaroslavl. On October 20, 2015, a self-titled collection of the workshop outcomes was presented in the residence of the Ambassador of the Russian Federation in Paris.

Scientific and information work of the RHS involves publication of new books on historical subjects, including studies in the held of history of the Russian community abroad, as well as reprints of masterpieces of science and social thought of the Russian emigration of 19^th and 20^th centuries. So, for example, the RHS website regularly posts information about the books by Kuchkovo Pole Publishing released under its auspices.

The fact that a topic related to the Russian community abroad has so much importance for the RHS is due not only to the conceptual framework for its work, but also to the presence of organizations and establishments directly connected with the world of Russian compatriots living abroad that are among its founders, such as Russkiy Mir Foundation, the Imperial Orthodox Palestine Society, the Russian Historical Society Abroad etc. The list of legal entities that are members of the RHS includes the Institute of Russian History of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Lomonosov Moscow State University and Russian State University for the Humanities which have centres for studies on Russian history and culture of Russian community abroad. The members of the Russian Historical Society are Alexander Solzhenitsyn House of Russia Abroad, the Russian Book Union and a number of other organizations engaged in dissemination of Russian books and other cultural and educational activities abroad. Besides, there are plans under way to establish the RHS structures in the Near and Far Abroad. In June 2015, during a meeting of Russian and Belarusian historians at Yanka Kupala State University of Grodno, a proposal was made to set up a representative office of the Russian Historical Society at the University of Grodno. The idea was supported by the Chairman of the RHS Sergey Naryshkin, State Secretary of the Union State Grigory Rapota and the entire scientific and historical community. The activities of the RHS branch in Belarus that are to be managed by the Faculty of History, Communication and Tourism of Yanka Kupala State University and the Russian State University for the Humanities will certainly play a positive role in expanding the involvement of Russian compatriots living in Belarus in historical and cultural events and in spreading historical knowledge.