An Abridgment of the Architecture of Vitruvius
TextThese three Gates were closed with Machines, made in a Triangle, and composed of three Fronts or Faces well Painted, to represent Buildings Lib. 5. in Perspective; they served for the changing of the Scenes, when these Machines were turned. And the Paintings represented three sorts of Buildings, which made three sorts of Scenes, viz. The Tragick by Magnificent Pallaces, the Comick by Private Houses, the Satyrical (i. e. the Pastoral) by Fields and Groves.
The Parascenium or Postscenium was the hinder part of the Theater, and the place whither the Actors retired and dressed themselves, and had their Rehearsals, and where the Machines were kept. Near the Theaters, were Publick Walks, in length a Stadium, which is about 90 Perches. There were Trees planted, and round about it were double Porticos, which were every one as broad as the Pillars on the out-side were high; for those within were higher by a fifth part, than those without, and they were likewise of a different Order; for those without were of the Dorick Order, and those within of the Ionick or Corinthian.
The Ancients built their Ports in two manners; at those which were Natural, they only made Portico’s round Lib. 5.
Chap. 13. about with Magazines and Towers at the Ends, for to shut the Port with a Chain.
Those which were Artificial, were built three several ways: The first was to make Partitions of Wood only, without emptying the Water which was within the Partitions, and they cast into the Partitions, Stone and Mortar made with Pozzolana, thrown in hand over head; for they were certain that this Mortar wou'd grow dry in the bottom of the Water. The second Way was by making Partitions with ordinary Clay, or fat Earth at the bottom of the Sea, after the Water had been emptied out by Pumps. The third Way was to build a Mole upon the Sea-Coast, and to cast it in when the Mason’s Work was sufficiently dry, which only required two Months time. That they might the better throw these Moles into the Sea, they built them half upon the Sea-Coast, and half upon an heap of Sand which they made close to the Sea-Coast; to the end, that this Sand which was stopped by nothing but by the Walls, built only to support it during the time that the Mole was a drying, might let it fall when the Sea came to carry away the Sand after that the Walls were beaten down.
Lib. 5.
Chap. 10. The Bathes of the Ancients consisted of many Chambers; some for Men, and some for Women.
Some of the Chambers had a moderate Heat, to warm their Bodies insensibly, and prepare them for a stronger Heat to make them Sweat.
The Chamber they were to Sweat in, was called Laconicum, and was round, and Vaulted like the ends of an Oven, pierced at the top with a round Opening, which was opened and shut with a Buckler of Brass, which hung at a Chain, by which means they augmented or diminished the Heat according to the Proportion that they pull'd up, or let down the Buckler.
One and the same Furnace heated both the Air and the Water, according to the Disposition of the places which were nearer or further from the Furnace, whose heat was communicated to the Chambers from under the Flooring, which was made full of little holes.
The Water was likewise diversly tempered by the different situation of three great Vessels of Brass, whose Water went from one into another, and there were Pipes that conveyed these three sorts of Water into the Bath.
The Academies of the Ancients, which they called Palæstra, was a place where the Youth learned Letters and their Exercises. They were composed of three parts, viz. Of a Peristyle, a Xyste, and a Stadium; the Peristyle was a Court surrounded with Portico’s, which were of two sorts; three of them were Simple, and one Double.
The Simple stood in a row against three Bodies of Lodgings, composed of many great Halls, where the Philosophers had their Disputes and Conferences.
The Bodies of the Lodgings, which was the length of the double Portico, and one part of the Bodies of Lodgings which turned in, were distributed into several parts, for the Studies and Exercises of Youth; for there they had their Classes, their Baths, their Stoves, and their Tenis-Court.
The Xyste was a place planted with Trees, and surrounded with Portico’s on every side: These Portico’s were of two sorts.
There was one double which was set against the Bodies of the Lodgings, to which the double Portico of the Peristyle was joyned.
The Simple Portico’s had two Wings, under these Simple Portico’s there were hollow Ways, where they performed their Exercises; the rest of the Portico was raised to the right and the left, for those that had a mind to Walk while the rest performed their Exercises, in the hollow ways.
The Place which was compassed with these three Portico’s, was planted with Trees, which made Allies, where the Wrestlers exercised in Winter, when it was fair Weather.
The Stadium was on the Side of the Peristyle and the Xyste. It was an Alley of 90 Perches; on each Side it had many Steps or Degrees, which made a sort of a long Theater bending in at both ends; these Steps or Degrees were made for the convenience of seeing them that Run.
CHAP. II
Of Private Buildings
ARTICLE I
Of the Courts of Houses
THE Houses of the Ancients had five sorts of Courts, of which the greatest part were covered round about by the Jettings which supported the Water-Channel Lib. 6.
Chap. 3. or Gutter, in which all the Water that fell from the Roof met together.
These Courts made with Jettings, were of four sorts; The first was called the Tuscan, this Court was surrounded with a Jetting en auvent, which was laid upon four Beams, supported by other standing Beams placed in the Corners.
The second Sort was called Corinthian; it had likewise Beams, but they were further from the Walls than in the Tuscan Court, and they were laid upon Pillars.
The third Sort was called Tetrastyle, because the Beams were supported with four Pillars which were in the place of the standing Beams that were made use of in the Tuscan Court.
The fourth Sort was called the Vaulted; because the Jetting that it had round about, was supported by Vaults.
The fifth Sort of Court that had no Jetting, and which was called the Uncovered, had the Water-Gutter directly upon the Wall, and was only covered with the Entablature.
ART. II.
Of the Vestibulum or Entry
THE Houses of the Ancients had Great and Magnificent Entries, they were sometimes 15 Perches long and 9 broad, and they were supported upon two ranks of Pillars, which made a Wing on each Side, the Proportion of their breadth and length was taken three Ways. The first was, when having divided the length into 5, 3 were allowed for the breadth. The second was, when having divided it into 3, 2 were allowed for the breadth. The third was, when having made an Equilateral Square, the Diagonal of this Square was taken for the length, and the Side for the breadth.
The height was equal to the length, taken from the Pavement below, to the bottom of the Plat-Fonds or Flat-Roof, which was hollowed on the other side the Beams, the seventh part of the whole height.
The Proportion that the Alley which was in the middle between the Pillars, had with the Wings, was different according to the Magnitude of the Vestibule or Entry, for the greater they were or the lesser, the Wings had a proportionable breadth with the Alley in the middle; So that if the Vestibule or Entry was 100 Foot long, the Wings had only for their breadth the 50th. part of the length; and when it was but 30 Foot long, they had only the 3d. part.
ART. III.
Of Halls
THE Ancients had three Sorts of Halls; Viz. The Corinthian, the Ægyptian, and the Cyzican.
The Corinthian had Pillars round about against the Wall, and these Pillars supported the Floor made in form of a Vault. Surbaissee.
The Ægyptian Halls had their Pillars distant from the Wall in the manner of the Peristyle, and they supported only an Architrave without a Frise and without a Cornice; upon this Architrave there was another row of Pillars, between which were the Windows. The Floor which reached from the Pillars to the Wall, served for a Terrasse without.
The Cyzican Halls had this in particular, that they were turned to the North, and had a Prospect of the Gardens; they were principally made Lib. 6.
Chap. 6. use of by the Greeks; the Proportion of these Halls was as follows, Their length was double their breadth, and as to their height, this Rule was observed to have the height of all Sorts of Apartments that are not so broad as long, they added their length to their breadth, and took half of the sum for their height. The Apartments which were no longer than broad, had in height their breadth, and half their breadth.
ART. IV
Of the Distribution of the Apartments among the Ancients
Lib. 6.
Chap. 10.
Lib. 6.
Chap. 3, 4. THE Romans and the Greeks ordered and distributed differently their Apartments; for the Romans had their Courts and Entries magnificent: but the Greeks had only a narrow Entrance, through which they passed into a Peristyle; this Entry had of one Side a Porter’s Lodge, on the other Side the Stables.
The Apartments of these two Nations differed in this, the Apartments of the Women were separate from the Apartments of the Men among the Greeks; insomuch that they Dined apart. They had likewise particular Rooms reserved for Strangers apart, where they only gave them Lodging, and never treated them above one Day.
CHAP. III
Of things that equally appertain to Publick and Private Buildings
ARTICLE I.
Of Agueducts
IN Order to the bringing of Waters to Towns and Cities, the Level must be exactly taken; to the end, it may be known whether the Waters can be brought thither or no. The Ancients to this end made Lib. 8
Chap. 6. use of an Instrument called Corobates, which was directed by a Lead, and by Water, when the Wind hindered them from making use of the Lead.
They brought their Water three several ways; viz. by Aqueducts, by Pipes of Lead, and Pipes baked in a Potter’s Furnace. They allowed for the Channels or Sewers of the Aqueducts, for every 100 Foot, half a Foot of Declination or Sloping; and if any Hills were in their way, they dug through them, making Vents to give Air at convenient Distances.
The Pipes of Lead were at least 9 Foot long; they made them of bended Sheets or Plates, and of different thicknesses, according to the Proportion of the greatness of the Pipes; these Pipes had likewise their necessary Declination or Sloping, and if any Valley was in the way, they made it equal to the Level with a Wall; they likewise made many Vents, to give the Water Air, and to know where to mend the Pipes.
The Pipes of Potter’s-Work, were two Inches thick; they were joyned together with Mortar mixed with Oil, and when they had Conde or Joynt to make, they made use of a red Free Stone which they pierced through, to receive the two Ends of the Pipes.
ART. II
Of Wells and Cisterns
IT being remarkt oftentimes that the Water which is under the Earth hath many bad Qualities, and exhales vapours, which often stifles those which work in the Wells, after that they are dug, & the Water begins to gather together. The Ancients had this Precaution, to let a Lamp gently down into it, and if it extinguished it, they took it for an Infallible sign that the Water was bad.
The Cisterns were made to receive Rain Water in great Conservatories under Ground, whose Walls on all Sides, and at the bottom were built with Mortar of strong Lime, and Sand, and Pebbles, all well beaten together. They made several Conservatories, and the Water passed from one to another, to the end it might leave all the Dirt in the first and second; They likewise put Salt in their Cistern-Water to make it more subtile.
ART. III.
Of Machines for carrying and lifting up great Stones and Burthens
CTesiphon and his Son Metagenes, Architects of the Temple of Ephesus, invented Machines to carry great Stones, out of which Pillars and Architraves were to be made. That Lib. 10.
Chap. 6. which was made to draw the Pillars, was but a sort of a Frame as long as the Pillars, in the end of which were fastned Pins of Iron, which entred into the ends of the Frame, and served instead of an Axle-tree, the Pillar it self serving for a Wheel: And this had the desired Effect, because of the disposition of the place through which these Stones were to be drawn, which was a flat and level Country.
The other Machine for drawing of Architraves, was the same Frame which had two Wheels at each end, which supported the Architrave; which served instead of an Axle-tree.
Lib. 10.
Chap. 2. For the raising of great Weights, they had three sorts of Machines. The first was composed of three pieces of Wood, which were joyned together at top by a Pin which went through them all; so that there were two of these pieces which were on one side, a little distance one from the other, and the third was opposite to them; The two which were together on the one side, had a Hand-Mill which drew a Rope, which passed within a Truckle with three Pullies, of which that part which had the two Pullies was fastned to the top of the Machine, and that which had but one, was fastned to the VVeight to be drawn up.
Lib. 10.
Chap. 2. The second Machine was stronger than the first, because the Moulin had more Pullies, and instead of a Moulin or Hand-Mill, it had a great Wheel, whose Axle-tree drew a Rope which passed through these Pullies, and upon the Wheel there was another Rope twisted, which was drawn by a Wind-glass; sometimes the great Wheel was hollow, so that Men could walk within it, and so turn it.
The third had but one long and strong piece of Wood, which was kept up and stayed by Shrowds, as the Mast of a Ship is. By the help of these Shrowds, they bended and turned this piece of Wood where they pleased, drawing the Shrowds fast on the one side, and loosening them on the other. The Moufl’s Crane as well those which were fastned to this piece of Wood, as those which were fastned to the Weight which was to be drawn up, had each of them three ranks of Pullies, which had three in every rank, that three Ropes might go through them, which were not drawn by Hand-Mills, nor by VVheels, but by Men who pulled several at one time at the same Rope: And that this might be done with the more ease, the three Ropes or Cables after having passed the last Pullies of that part of the Moufle which was at the top of the Machine; they descended down below, each upon one Pully, which vvas but the height of the Men: this Machine quickly povverfully lifted up the greatest VVeights.
ART. IV
Of Machines for Elevating of Waters
THESE Machines were of four sorts.
Lib. 10. The first was the Tympan, of which there were two sorts; The first elevated a great deal of Water, but not very high, for it only mounted to the Axle-tree of the Tympan, which was a great Wheel made of Planks which made two bottoms divided into eight from the Center to the Circumference, each Separation, having an opening half a Foot wide near the Circumference to draw the Water, which being elevated upon the Axle-tree, ran through the Cavities which were hollowed in each Separation.
The Second Machine, was a Wheel which elevated the Water as high as its Circumference, by the help of several Boxes which were fastned round about, and which poured out the Water into a Reeve as the Wheel, having mounted, began to descend.
Lib. 10.
Chap. 2. The Third Machine was a Chain with Buckets, as the one mounted, the other descended, being drawn by the Axle-tree.
The Fourth Machine was the Vice or Skrew, which is attributed to Archimedes, though Vitruvius makes no mention of the Inventor. This Vice was made of a piece of VVood, long sixteen times its Diameter: about this piece of Wood was put Obliquely a Hoop of Willow Hoop of Willow VVood besmeared with Pitch, and it was Conducted by turning from one end of the piece of the Wood to the other: Upon this Hoop others were put so that they were like the Vaulting of a Stair-Case whose ascent goes turning. This being done, this Vice was fastned and strengthned with Planks, which were pitched within, and covered with Iron Rings and Plates without: At the two ends of the piece of Wood, were Pins, which entring into the Suckets, made the Machine capable of Motion. This Vice or Skrew was placed according to the bent or sloping of the Triangle Rectangle of Pythagoras. This Machine elevated easily a great quantity of Water, but it could not carry it high.
The Fifth Machine, was the Pump Lib. 10.
Chap. 2. of Ctesibius; it was composed of two Bodies of Pumps, in which the Suckets having drawn the VVater when they were pulled up, they both pressed it violently into a Pipe which was fastned at the bottom of the Body of the Pump when they went down. For the VVater by the Impulsion of the Sucket, was forced to enter into these Pipes, because it could not go out by the Openings by which it entred, because of the Suckets which stopped them, these two Pipes were joyned together in a Tambour, which had likewise its Suckets, which hindred the VVater from descending into the Bodies of the Pumps, after it had been pressed into the Tambour, or Vase, which had another Pipe, through which the VVater was forced as high as they pleased, by Impulsion of the Suckets.
Lib. 10.
Chap. 10. All these Machines were either moved by Strength of Men, or by VVater-Mills, according to the convenience of the place.
ART. V
Of Water-Mills for Grinding of Corn
Lib. 10.
Chap. 10.W Ater-Mills were moved by the help of a great VVheel which had many VVings, which were forced by the Current. The Axle-tree of this great VVheel, traversed another VVheel which had Cogs, which made the Lanterne or Trundle-head go, which was placed Horizontally, which was traversed by a Beam of Iron, which entred through above, into an Iron in form of a VVedge, which helped to fasten the Beam in the Mill-stone, above which was the Mill-Hopper, in form of a Funnel.
ART. VI
Of other Hydraulick Machines
THERE were many other Machines which moved by the help of the VVater, as Hour-Glasses, Organs, Machines for Measuring the VVays, and knowing the swiftness or slowness of Sailing.
The Hour-Glasses marked the Hours by the help of VVater, which passing slowly, a little hole made at the bottom of a Vessel, and falling into another, in elevating it self insensibly in the Vessel which it filled, raised a piece of Cork, which hanging at one of the ends of a Chain wrapped about an Axle-tree, and which had at the other end a little Bag full of Sand, and a little lighter than the Cork: for this Chain turning, the Axle-tree likewise turned a Pin or Hand, which marked the Hours upon a Dial.
Lib. 10.
Chap. 12. The Organs played by help of two Suckets, which were pulled up or let down in the Bodies of the Pump. The Suckets pushed the Air with violence into a Funnel reversed in a Copper Coffer half full of VVater, and pressed the Water, and constrained it to ascend round about within the Coffer, which made that its weight in making it re-enter into the Funnel, pushed the Air into the Pipes, and made them Play, producing the same Effects that the Bellows did.
Lib. 10.
Chap. 14. They measured the way that the Ships make by the help of a little Mill, which was fastned to the Ship, and which turned by the resistance that its VVings found in the VVater when the Ship went forward and the Axle-tree of this Mill had a little Rong or Tooth, which every round pushed forwards one of the Teeth of the great VVheel, which turned another, and that another which turned a Pin or Handle, which marked the number of turnings, that the Mill made, by which means it was easie to take an account of the Perches, and Leagues that the Ship sailed.
They made use of the same Machine on the Land, fixing to the Nave of the VVheel of a Coach, a Tooth which made many VVheels be turned as in the above-mentioned Machine, at the last of which, was fastned a Pin or Handle, which marked the number of Perches and Leagues. This Machine had likewise a sort of a Counting VVheel, which at every Mile that the Coach went, let a Pibble fall into a Vessel of Brass, to give notice that they had gone a Mile.
ART. VII
Of Machines of War
Lib. 10.
Chap. 15. THE Machines of VVar of the Ancients were of three Sorts, for they were made either to Lance, Arrows, such as were the Scorpions or Javelins, such as were the Catapulta’s, or Stones, such as were Ballista’s or fiery Darts, such as were the Pyroboli, or they were made to beat down the VValls, such as were the battering Rams, and the Terebra, or to come covered to the VValls, and so safely Mount the Ramparts, such as were the Tortoises or Testudo’s, and the Towers of VVood.
Lib. 10.
Chap. 18. The Scorpions were a sort of great Crossbows, which were made use of to defend the VValls, and which likewise the Assailants made use of in the wooden Towers, to annoy those that defended the VValls.
The Catapulta, lanced Javelins or Javelots, from 12 to 15 Foot in length, they were made of two Trees, set one against another, like the Masts of a Ship, which were bended in drawing them with a Hand-Mill. These Trees being on a suddain unbent, furiously struck together, and forced violently the Javelin. They were bent the one after the other by the same Cord, which was made of Guts, to the end, that the Master who managed the Engine, might be assured, that the two Trees or Beams were equally bent. He knew it by sounding the Cord when both the Beams were bent, and when the End above was drawn even to the Capital of the Machine, where they were stayed by a Pin of Iron, which was driven out by a quick stroke of a Hammer when they unbent it. There was a Cylinder which traversed an excentrical piece, by the help of which they heightned, or let down the End of one of the Beams below, according as the Master of the Machine judged it necessary, for the augmenting or diminishing their bent, which was known by the sound of the Cord, which was alike in both, when they were equally bent. See Table XI.
The Ballista’s were bended and strung as the Catapulta’s, but instead of Javelins, they cast great Stones.
Lib. 10.
Chap. 22. The Pyroboli were Machines, which lanced or cast Darts, to vvhich vvas fixed combustible Matter, vvhich was kindled vvhen they darted it against Machines of VVar or Shipping.
The Ram vvas to beat dovvn Walls and make breaches. It vvas a great Beam headed with Iron; it vvas hung by the middle, and pushed by the Soldiery vvith great violence against the Walls.
The Terebra vvas something like the Ram, being a strong Beam pointed vvith Iron, but it vvas sharp pointed, and it made vvay for the Ram, splitting the Stones.
Lib. 10.
Chap. 20. The Testudo or Tortoise, vvere great large and low Towers of Wood, which were rowled upon six or eight Wheels, they were covered with raw Hides to defend them from fire. Their use was to cover them that approached the Walls to undermine them, or beat them with the battering Ram.
The Towers of Wood were made to raise the Assailants as high as the Walls, to chace the Besieged away with Arrows and Scorpions, and to lay Bridges from the Towers to the Wall; they were sometimes Thirty Fathoms high, having Twenty Stages. They were covered, as the Tortoises with raw Hides; they had each of them a Hundred Men, which were employed as well to move them, as to annoy the Besieged.