Gesammelte Aufsätze zur romanischen Philologie

IV. Rahab

More than fifty years ago Paget ToynbeeToynbee, P. discovered that Rahab, the harlot in Joshua, chs. 2 and 6, who holds a very distinguished place in the heaven of Venus (Par. 9, 115–126), is to be considered as a type of the Church. He published his discovery, based on passages from IsidorusIsidor v. Sevilla and Petrus ComestorPetrus Comestor, in The Academy of September 12, 1894, p. 216; he also stressed the fact that Rahab is one of the ancestors of Christ (Matth.Matthäus (Evangelist) 1, 5). E. RostagnoRostagno, E. gave an account of Toynbee’s article in Bullettino, II, 94; this account only is available to me at the moment. There cannot be the slightest doubt that Toynbee was right, and that his discovery is indispensable for the understanding of DanteDante’s verses. Nevertheless, it does not seem to have penetrated into all of the important commentaries and commented editions. ZingarelliZingarelli, N. (DanteDante, 3a ed., p. 1205) and H. Flanders DunbarFlanders Dunbar, H. (Symbolism, p. 54) developed it further, and it is recorded in the edition CasiniCasini, T.-BarbiBarbi, M.; but the ninth edition of ScartazziniScartazzini, G. A.-VandelliVandelli, G. (1932) still ignores it. The verses in question are the following:

Tu vuo’ saper chi è in questa lumera

che qui appresso me cosi scintilla,

come raggio di sole in acqua mera.

Or sappi che là entro si tranquilla

Raab; e a nostr’ ordine congiunta,

di lei nel sommo grado si sigilla.

Da questo cielo, in cui l’ombra s’appunta

che’l vostro mondo face, pria ch’altr’alma

del triunfo di Cristo fu assunta.

Ben si convenne lei lasciar per palma

in alcun cielo de l’alta vittoria

che s’acquistò con l’una e l’altra palma,

perch’ella favorò la prima gloria

di Josuè in su la Terra Santa

che poco tocca al papa la memoria.

The book of Joshua, especially its first chapters, has been interpreted from the very earliest times of Christianity as a figure of the appearance of Christ; all the details of the passing over the Jordan and of the conquest of Jericho have entered into the framework of this figura, one of the most famous and popular of Christian Antiquity and the Middle AgesMittelalter. We even possess an illuminated manuscript, the Joshua Roll of the Vatican, executed in the sixth century, probably a copy of the earlier original, which unmistakably shows Joshua as a type of Christ. But already to TertullianTertullian this figurative relation was quite familiar: he explains it in the treatise Adv. Marcionem (3, 16), emphasizing the identity of the names Joshua and Jesus (cf. our note 9). IsidorusIsidor v. Sevilla gives a full description of the details, and his passage concerning Rahab,27 quoted by ToynbeeToynbee, P. and RostagnoRostagno, E., was reproduced or paraphrased many times during the Middle Ages, not only by Petrus ComestorPetrus Comestor in his Historia Scholastica, but also by another author familiar to DanteDante, Petrus DamianiPetrus Damiani,28 who plays a prominent part in the heaven of Saturn (Par. 21). All these ancient commentators say, with slight variations, that the house of Rahab alone with all its inhabitants escaped destruction just as the Church will alone be saved; and that she was freed from the ‘fornication of the world’ by the window of confession, in which she bound the scarlet thread, sanguinis Christi signum. Thus, she became figura ecclesiae, and the scarlet thread (just like the posts struck with the blood of the Lamb, Exod. 12) became a symbol of Christ’s redeeming sacrifice. The conception of Jericho as eternal perdition was supported by the parable from LukeLukas (Evangelist) 10, 30 (homo quidam descendebat ab Jerusalem in Jericho, et incidit in latrones …), generally interpreted as a figure of the fall of man. In the same way, the victory gained con l’una e l’altera palma seems to allude to the victory of Joshua won with outstretched hands (Exod. 17 with Jos. 8; cf. Sir. 46, 1–3), as a figure of the victory of Christ, whose hands were outstretched on the cross.

It has been asked many times whether the alta vittoria for which Rahab stands as a sign is that of Joshua or that of Christ, and the commentators have decided for one or the other possibility. But she stands for both: for the victory of Joshua inasmuch as Joshua figures Christ, for that of Christ inasmuch as Christ ‘fulfills’ Joshua; figuram implere is the term used by the Fathers of the ChurchKirchenväter. Of course, it is the figurative sense which gives to the literal sense its importance and only by the former can the prominent position of Rahab be explained. But both terms of a figurative relation are equally true, equally real, equally present: the figurative sense does not destroy the literal, and the literal does not deprive the figurative of its quality of a real historical event. I have tried to explain this in my above quoted article ‘figura’.

Obviously, the last sentence too, che poco tocca al papa la memoria, is to be understood in a twofold and figurative manner. It is not only the Holy Land in its concrete terrestrial sense, terrena Jerusalem, which the Pope has forgotten by fighting against Christians instead of liberating it; he also, for the sake of the maledetto flore, has lost all memory of our city to come, aeterna Jerusalem.

V. Terra et Maria

In the 13th Canto of the Paradiso Thomas AquinasThomas v. Aquin speaks of the two persons who were created immediately by the Trinity, and in whom therefore human nature reached its highest perfection:

Però se ’l caldo amor la chiara vista

de la prima virtù dispone e segna

tutta la perfezion quivi s’acquista

Cosi fu fatta già la terra degna

di tutta l’animal perfezione;

cosi fu fatta la Vergine pregna:

Si ch’io commendo la tua opinione

che l’umana natura mai non fue

ne fia qual fu in quelle due persone. (vv. 79–87)

These two persons are Adam and Christ; this is evident, and has been almost universally acknowledged.29 We have to deal here with Christ the man, l’uom che nacque e visse senza pecca (Inf. 34, 115). It may be interesting to note that DanteDante not only followed the general tradition in his treatment of the theme Adam-Christ, but that he even had models for the special development of the figure terra-Maria. On this matter, there is the following statement in the Allegoriae in Vetus Testamentum, cap. VII (Appendix to Opera Hugonis de Sancto VictoreHugo v. St. Victor, Patr. Lat., CLXXV, 639):

Terra de qua primus homo natus est, significat Virginem, de qua secundus homo natus est: virgo terra, virgo Maria. Sicut de terra divina operatione factus est corpus humanum sic de Virgine divina operatione Verbum creditur incarnatum. Sine macula fuit corpus Adae sumptum de terra (‘di tutta l’animal perfezione’), et immaculatum corpus Christi animatum de Maria. Adam factus est in sexta saeculi die, Christus natus est in sextae aetate, et passus est in sexta hora diei, sexta feria hebdomadae. Adam obdormivit ut de costa eius fieret Eva, Christus sopitus est ut de sanguine eius redimeretur Ecclesia. Adam sponsus et Eva de ipso facta sponsa, Christus sponsus et sponsa ab ipso redempta Ecclesia. Adam debuit praeesse et regere Evam, Christus praeest et regit Ecclesiam. Terra ergo Maria; sexta feria, sexta aetas, vel sexta dies, vel sexta hora. Adam Christus, dormitio Adae, passio Christi; conditio Evae, redemptio Ecclesiae. Ad similitudinem quoque Adae et Evae, Christi et Ecclesiae, est Deus sponsus cuiuslibet fidelis animae.

All these motifs are traditional, though I have not found the figure terra-Maria (‘virgin soil’) anywhere else except in DanteDante and in this passage from the Dubia of Hugo of St VictorHugo v. St. Victor. But it too must belong to the tradition, since the Allegoriae are nothing else than a compendium of traditional typology. More widespread is the figure Eva-Ecclesia, in connexion with the lateral wounds30 and the relation between Adam’s sleep and Christ’s Passion; it was familiar already to TertullianTertullian who writes (De Anima, 43): Si enim Adam de Christo figuram Jabot, somnus Adae mors erat Christi dormituri in mortem, ut de iniuria lateris eius vera mater viventium figuraretur Ecclesia. As for the figure Eva-Maria, it has been, I think, most beautifully presented by Bernard of ClairvauxBernhard v. Clairvaux; the following passage comes from the once famous Sermo de aquaeductu (In nativitate B. Mariae Virginis, § 6, Patr. Lat., CLXXXIII, 441), which we will have to quote again afterwards: Ne dixeris ultra, o Adam: mulier quam dedisti mihi dedit mihi de ligno vetito; dic potius: mulier quam dedisti mihi me cibavit fructu benedicto.

VI. Pelles Salomonis

For the verses Par. 27, 136–138:

Cosi si fa la pella bianca nera

nel primo aspetto de la bella figlia

di quel ch’apporta mane e lascia sera,

the interpretation of the daughter of the sun (di quel ch’apporta mane e lascia sera) as Circe, given first by Filomusi-GuelfiFilomusi-Guelfi, L., seems to me not an ideal solution, in spite of Michele Barbi’sBarbi, M. approval and in spite of the fact that some earlier passages31 may be alleged to support it. Neither am I inclined to accept the explanation of filia solis as humanity by referring to Par. 22, 116, where the sun is called padre d’ogni mortal vita. Indeed, I too believe that humanity or at least Christianity is meant, but that cannot be established in this way, and if for no other reason than that mortal vita is not humanity alone.

I think that those are on the right track who have referred to the Canticles for an explanation. But they base themselves, as far as I know, only on Cant. 7, 1 in connexion with Psalm 44, 14, where filia principis or regis is mentioned; this was sometimes interpreted, in the Middle AgesMittelalter, as the Church. But it is a rather weak support; for principis or regis is not solis; and every expert in the figurative tradition will agree with me that the Church (or Christianity or the faithful soul) is very often symbolized as sponsa Christi, but scarcely as his daughter32 – and there is no doubt that the sun, in the typological tradition, can mean nothing else but Christ, sol iustitiae and oriens ex alto. It is very likely that DanteDante was in difficulties for a rhyme, and thus he may have combined the unusual image filia principis with sponsa solis; or even, the difficulty of the rhyme may have induced him to a somewhat violent and ambiguous order of words: so that di quel ch’ apporta mane e lascia sera would depend not on figlia, but on primo aspetto; thus, the problem filia solis would disappear, and the sentence, in normal word-order, would run: Cosi si fa la pelle bianca della bella figlia nera, nel primo aspetto di quel … But although I personally am very much inclined to adopt this solution, I have no means of proving it.

Anyway, the motifs bella figlia, pelle bianca, nera, sole contain for the mediaeval reader a reference to another passage of the Canticles, namely 1, 4–5: nigra sum sed formosa, filiae Jerusalem, sicut tabernaculum Cedar, sicut pelles Salomonis; nolite me considerare quod fusca sim, quia decoloravit me sol. The allusion is the more evident (not for us, but for the mediaeval reader), since before in the entire 27th canto the theme of the corruption of the Church (or anger and shame about it) had constantly been connected with change or loss of colour (V. 13–15; 19–21; 28–36; see also Par. 22, 91–93). The interpretation of Cant. 1, 4–5 has produced such rich and varied speculation that the explanation of DanteDante’s verses is not immediately facilitated by this reference; one thing at least is evident, that the filia or sponsa of the Canticles is the Church or Christianity, that therefore we have to deal with its corruption. Moreover, I shall quote some commentaries on the Canticles which may perhaps help to a more accurate understanding of DanteDante’s intention.

I begin by adducing a characteristic passage from Bernard of Clairvaux’Bernhard v. Clairvaux SermonsDrama. At this point he refers nigra only to tabernaculum Cedar, formosa only to pelles Salomonis, and he thus begins the exposition of this second comparison:

Quid est ergo quod dicit: formosa sum sicut pelles Salomonis? Magnum et mirabile quiddam, ut ego aestimo: sed tamen non hunc, sed illum attendamus de quo dicitur: Ecce plus quam Salomo hic (Matth.Matthäus (Evangelist) 12, 42). Nam usque adeo is meus Salomon est, ut non modo pacificus (quod quidem Salomon interpretatur), sed et pax ipsa vocatur, Paulo perhibente quia ipse est pax nostra [Ephes. 2, 14]. Apud istum Salomonem non dubito posse inveniri, quod decori sponsae omnino comparare non dubitem. Et praesertim de pellibus eius adverte in Psalmo: Extendens, ait, coelum sicut pellem [Ps. 103, 2]. Non ille profecto Salomon, etsi multum sapiens, multumque potens, extendit coelum sicut pellem; sed is potius, qui non tam sapiens quam ipsa Sapientia est, ipse prorsus extendit et condidit. Istius siquidem, et non illius illa vox est: Quando praeparabat coelos, haud dubium quin Deus Pater, et ego aderam [Prov. 8, 27]. … Pulcherrima pellis, quae in modum magni cuiusdam tentorii universam operiens faciem terrae, solis, lunae atque stellarum varietate tam spectabili humanos oblectat aspectus. Quid hac pelle formosius? Quod ornatius coelo? Minime tamen vel ipsum ullatenus conferendum gloriae et decori sponsae, eo ipso succumbens, quod praeterit et haec figura ipsius, utpote corporea, et corporeis subjacens sensibus … [Then follows the interpretation of pellis not as coelum visibile et corporeum, but as coelum intellectuale et spirituale]. Patr. Lat., CLXXXIII, 913–914.

Solomon thus becomes a type of Christ, and pelles, by combination with extendit coelum sicut pellem, becomes heaven.33 Spontaneously the idea presents itself: perhaps DanteDante really meant pellis as heaven, so that the passage would have to be interpreted: therefore heaven becomes obscured – a thing which has just happened, shortly before, during Peter’s speech, in the same canto? It is not impossible that DanteDante had such an idea in mind; but the tradition offers still other less complex interpretations of Cant. 1, 4–5.34 Gregory writes in his Expositio super Cantica (ibid., LXXIX, 486):

… Quomodo formosa sicut pelles Salomonis? Fertur Salomo quando templum aedificavit omnia illa vasa templi factis pellibus cooperuisse. Sed nimirum pelles Salomonis decorae esse potuerunt in obsequium regis. Sed quia Salomon interpretatur pacificus, nos ipsum verum Salomonem intelligamus; quia omnes animae adhaerentes Deo pelles Salomonis sunt. …

He thus regards pelles as the souls of the faithful; and Honorius of AutunHonorius v. Autun, with a reference to the arca Dei posita in medio pellium (2 Sam. 7, 2), explains pelles as ecclesia (ibid., CLXXII, 368). Even by the detour coelum we may return to ecclesia, as is shown by a text of Adam ScotusAdam Scotus which I wish to quote also because it demonstrates the relation of figural speculations on pellis and decoloratio with political themes familiar and important to DanteDante. In Sermo XXX in die S. Stephani Protomartyris, describing Stephan’s vision of Heaven while being stoned, he refers to the passage extendit coelum sicut pellem and gives a sevenfold explanation of coelum: the first is Sancta Ecclesia: Nonne tibi videtur sancta Ecclesia esse coelum, in qua velut sol fulget sacerdotium, ut luna lucet, regnum et quot sanctos viros quasi tot praeclaras habet stellas? But these heavenly lights are already darkened, the corruption has begun, a fact which he corroborates by many scriptural passages, above all Joel 2, 31: Sol convertetur in tenebras, et luna in sanguinem. Afterwards sol and luna are discussed separately; a great number of themes appear which DanteDante used later in the same context, for ex. the dragon’s tail (Apoc. 12, 4; Purg. 32, 130–135). Finally he quotes Apoc. 6, 12–13:

sol factus est niger tamquam saccus cilicinus, et luna tota facta est sicut sanguis, et stellae ceciderunt super terram: pro eo quod sacerdotium asperitas iniquitatis denigrat, imperium furor crudelitatis cruentat, alii vero sancti relicta altitudine contemplationis coelestis devolvuntur in terrenis. … (Patr. Lat., CXCIII, 272).

The denigratio of the Sacerdotium leads us back to the decoloratio in Cant. 1, 4–5. Most of the explanations given by mediaeval commentators are not suitable for our purpose; they consider it mostly either as an effect of the persecution (the Church is ‘black’ because she is persecuted by the evil powers of the world,35 but pure, white, beautiful36 within because of her virtues) – or as an effect of the burning grace of Christ. But only discoloration through moral corruption would suit our purpose; this is suggested by some passages of Gregory and of Honorius;37 one may also quote Bernard’s words concerning Sir. 13, 1 (qui tangit picem etc., ibid., CLXXXIII, 1178).

None of the explanations of Cant. 1, 4–5 which I know is altogether suitable for our DanteDante passage; but that could not be otherwise. For DanteDante’s sequence of ideas is his peculiar property; no other, before him, would have said that the corruption of the Church in his time had led to a darkening of heaven comparable to that following the Passion of Christ; or that the sviare of human society was due to the lack of imperial power; these ideas were his own, and so he had to use the motifs figlia, pelle, decolorare as they suited his purpose. Thus, he gave a variant or new combination of the traditional interpretations: human society (sponsa Christi, la bella figlia) loses her colour in the sight of the bridegroom (in the sight of Christ, nel primo aspetto),38 or even, if my conjecture concerning the syntactical structure is correct, nel primo aspetto di quel ch’apporta mane e lascia sera – just as in his sight, ne la presenza del Figliuol di Dio (v. 24), the throne of Peter is vacant. It is not very important whether one understands pellis as coelum, or simply as an image of the Church or Christianity used by the sponsa of the Canticles as a comparison with herself. The interpretation resulting from our observations is not new; many scholars have been convinced that the corruption of the Church or of Christianity was meant. It is, however, not our principal purpose to give new interpretations, but to contribute to the understanding of the poetical and symbolical world in which DanteDante lived.

VII. Lumen meridianum

In the verses of the prayerLobrede to Mary (Par. 33)

Qui sei per noi meridiana face

di caritade; e giuso, intra i mortali

sei di speranza fontana vivace

DanteDante uses the images meridiana face and fontana for the contrast ‘here in heaven’ and ’down on earth’. It is Bernard of Clairvaux whom DanteDante makes speak thus, and the same images are to be found, in the same contrast, in Bernard’s above-quoted sermon de aquaeductu (In Nativ. B. Mariae Virg. Sermo, § 2–4, Patr. Lat., CLXXXIII, 439–440); however they there refer not to Mary, but to Christ.

In Bernard’s sermon Christ is fons indeficiens, fons hortorum, fons vitae, but Mary is the aqueduct which leads the water to us:

… Descendit per aquaeductum vena illa coelestis, non tamen fontis exhibens copiam, sed stillicidia gratiae arentibus cordibus nostris infundens, aliis quidem plus, aliis minus. Plenus equidem aquaeductus, ut accipiant caeteri de plenitudine, sed non plenitudinem ipsam. Advertistis iam, ni fallor, quem velim dicere aquaeductum, qui plenitudinem fontis ipsius de corde Patris excipiens, nobis edidit ilium, si non prout est, saltem prout capere poteramus. Nostis enim cui dictum est: Ave gratia plena. …

The image meridiana face comes from Bernard’s interpretation of Cant. 1, 6, indica mihi quem diligit anima mea, ubi pascas, ubi cubes in meridie. It cannot be clearly gathered from the brief allusions of the sermon de aquaeductu, but is fully explained in the commentary to the quoted verse of the Canticles (Sermones in Cant. XXXIII, Patr. Lat., LXXXIII, 951). That noon which the bride searches for, while she still walks in the flesh, while she only through faith possesses a shadow of the truth, is eternal beatitude: etenim illa meridies tata est dies, et ipse nesciens vesperam; or a little later:

… sane extunc (after Christ’s ascension) elevatus est sol, et sensim demum diffundens suos radios super terram coepit paulatim ubique clarior apparere fervidiorque sentiri. Verum quantumlibet incalescat et invalescat …, non tamen ad meridianum perveniet lumen, nec in illa sui plenitudine videbitur modo, in qua videndus est postea, ab his dumtaxat, quos hac visione ipse dignabitur. O vere meridies, plenitudo fervoris et lucis, solis statio, umbarum exterminatio, desiccatio paludum, fetorum depulsio! O perenne solstitium, quando iam non inclinabitur dies! O lumen meridianum. …

[‘Show me that spot, as Jacob, Moses, Isaiah, still in the flesh, saw God face to face’:] vel etiam quomodo Paulus raptus in paradisum audivit verba ineffabilia, et Dominum suum Jesum Christum vidit oculis suis; ita ego quoque te in lumine tuo et in decore tuo per mentis excessum merear contemplari, pascentem uberius, quiescentem securius. Nam et hic pascis, sed non in saturitate; nec cubare licet, sed stare et vigilare propter timores nocturnos. Heu! nec clara lux, nec plena refectio, nec mansio tuta: et ideo indica mihi ubi pascas, ubi cubes in meridie. …

I should like to express my sincere thanks to my colleague Prof. W. KranzKranz, W. for his many valuable observations, and to Mr. H. S. BoydBoyd, H. S. for his kind help in translating this article into English.